7 Things You Should Know About Multiple Intelligences

I recently received a link to the below blog post from Thomas Armstrong of the American Institute for Learning and Human Development, you may find it interesting. Click here to go to the website.

Howard Gardner

7 Things You Should Know About Multiple Intelligences

By Thomas Armstrong

I received an email last week from someone who said his school had required him to buy a book that claimed Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences was a myth.  Naturally, as someone who has written and taught about this theory for the past thirty-four years, I was disturbed by this revelation.  To help set the record straight, I list here seven things you should know about the theory of multiple intelligences before going off the track and dismissing the theory altogether.

1. There Are Actually 8 1/2 Intelligences.  Gardner originally started out with 7 intelligences when his book Frames of Mind first came out in 1983.  In 1997 he added the ”naturalist” intelligence (because he believed it met the criteria for an intelligence – see point #6 below).  In 1999, in his book Intelligence Reframed, he began to talk about the ”existential” intelligence (the intelligence of concern with ultimate life issues) because it also met most of the criteria for an intelligence, but not quite enough to qualify as a full-fledged intelligence, hence the 1/2 (which he talks about to a certain extent with tongue in cheek).

2. Multiple Intelligences is Not a Way of Teaching. Some of the criticism of multiple intelligences has arisen as a part of the now deeply entrenched ”evidence-based” movement in education which seems to require that every teaching strategy should be subjected to random controlled trials, where one group receives a specific instructional intervention and is compared with a group that didn’t based on pre- and post-testing.  Out of this, a statistic is derived, most often an ”effect size” (e.g. .4 is seen as borderline for an ”evidence-based” strategy).  Well, you simply can’t DO this with multiple intelligences, which, please note, is a theory, not a single classroom intervention.  But because one can’t derive a single statistic (or set of statistics) from the theory, people assume this means it is a myth.  This is crazy talk.  It’s like saying that the fields of existentialism, humanism, and pragmatism are myths because they can’t be reduced to a set of statistics.  In reality, there’s another ”ism” that is at the root of this problem:  logical positivism, which is a philosophy that holds that what is ”true” can only be expressed through numbers and logic!

3. Multiple Intelligences Can Be Applied in Hundreds of Ways.  Dovetailing off of point #2, there are innumerable ways to apply the theory of multiple intelligences, and some of these specific ways are in fact supported by the existing evidence-based literature.  Robert Marzano, for example, who is one of the evidence-based gurus of education, lists one evidence-based approach for teaching vocabulary to students as:  ”Ask students to construct a picture, pictograph, or symbolic representation of the term.”  This would be regarded as an excellent spatial (or picture smart) application of multiple intelligences.  And there are scores of examples besides this one.  Again, you can’t roll the whole of multiple intelligences into a ball and tell whether or not it’s evidence-based.  You need to unwind the strands and examine them one by one.

4. There Are Several Ways to Goof Up Using Multiple Intelligences.  As noted in point #3, there are hundreds of ways of legitimately applying the theory of multiple intelligences, but there are also a number of ways it can be misapplied.  One way is by assuming that each student is strongest in only one intelligence, and then labeling that student with that intelligence (e.g. ”our picture smart child”), and then giving them only material that relates to that intelligence. Gardner actually had to do a video broadcast for Australian media many years ago, because they were reporting how each intelligence was matched to a specific racial type! Gardner is clear in stating that every child has all eight and a half of the intelligences, and can develop them to a degree of proficiency within certain limits.

5. Multiple Intelligences May Increase Test Scores, But If It Doesn’t That Doesn’t Mean It’s a Myth.  This point also relates to the critics’ dismissal of multiple intelligences because of their belief that it doesn’t ”raise test scores.” Well, the jury is out on that, because, again, it depends upon which aspects of multiple intelligences are being applied, and we’re back to ”effect sizes” (e.g. an effect size is the difference between the standard deviations of two groups based upon, guess what? test scores).  The fact that multiple intelligences may actually make students deeper, more engaged, more thoughtful students doesn’t seem to enter the mind of these number-crazed critics.

6. More People Should Study the Multiple Intelligences Criteria. The word ”evidence” can mean a lot of things – it doesn’t have to just refer to statistics and numbers (what about the ”evidence” given in a jury trial?).  Gardner actually marshals a great deal of evidence in support of the 8 1/2 intelligences, and they can be found described in his first book on the subject:  Frames of Mind, published in 1983 (and revised in 2011).  In one chapter of the book, he explains how multiple intelligences are supported by evidence from brain science, developmental psychology, semiotics, cognitive psychology, cognitive archaeology, animal physiology, and the biographies and autobiographies of exceptional people (including savants and the geniuses of culture).  Put THAT in your Funk and Wagnall’s!  (the reference is to the TV show ”Laugh In” that aired from 1968-1973)

7. Multiple Intelligences is Best Examined by Studying Life.  Here we come to I think the crux of the matter.  Multiple intelligences is not best assessed, analyzed, or examined through numbers, as seems to be the demand of those who claim this theory is a myth.  Instead, one must look to LIFE for the evidence of this theory’s vitality. You can see evidence for the multiple intelligences virtually everywhere:  in the symbol systems people use (e.g. words, numbers, pictures, musical notes), in the ways cultures value them (e.g. systems of music, mathematics, physical culture, social organizations), in the great thinkers of our time (e.g. Einstein, Picasso, Martin Luther King, Martha Graham), in the ways animals deploy their assets (e.g. birds use of musical intelligences, ants exploit social intelligence, chimpanzees display use of primitive forms of linguistic intelligence), and there is much more that this theory helps to explain.  In fact, there’s such a wealth of material opened up by this theory that could take a person a lifetime to assimilate and digest.

In other words, the main reason why I have been so enamored of this theory since my discovery of it in 1985 is because it brings to life so many dimensions of the human condition that I am always discovering new things within it.  This compares with the excruciatingly boring statistical analyses used by those who accuse multiple intelligences of being a myth.  Well, the Greek word for myth is ”mythos” which means ”story.” Howard Gardner has told a story about the human mind that to my mind is still unrivaled in the fields of psychology and education.  So, critics, stop already with the devaluations and denigrations, and take a moment or two to turn toward the big picture of existence, and bask in the brilliance of a theory that can illuminate so many aspects of our lives that were previously hidden from view.

Which Intelligence Predicts Coding Ability?

Here’s a quick question for a fan of multiple intelligences theory: Which intelligence predicts how well a person learns to code?

If you’d asked me that question, I would probably have blurted out “logical-mathematical intelligence“ because computing seems a quintessential logical and mathematical task.

But I would’ve been wrong.

Chantel Prat and colleagues, researchers at the University of Washington in Seattle, decided to test out the options. And as reported in this article, the answer was not what one might have expected.

In fact, a better predictor of skill at coding is the linguistic skill of the individual in question. Put differently, individuals who are good at language—precise denotation and mastery of syntax are more likely to succeed at coding than individuals who are good at mathematics.

Of course once one knows the right answer, it’s easier to come up with, or contrive, an explanation.

According to the authors, success at coding depends upon a precise use of language with attention to every word, its meaning and its place in a sentence and a message being essential if you are not to botch the task. And so people who are sensitive to the denotations of words and truly a precise ordering and its implications have a heads up on success in learning to code. Or as my colleague Katie Davis put it, “coding is really like learning a second language.”

Of course, skills in logic and mathematics also help individuals learn to code. It’s just that in this particular race to success, language has the edge. And this study reminds us again that language and mathematics are not the same thing—as every high school teacher could confirm.

Read the full article here.

Writing from the Body: A blend of intelligences

I’m gratified when educators write to me about ingenious courses that they have devised. On occasion, I ask for details and invite the educator to blog about it.

 I’m pleased that Cheryl Pallant, who teaches at the University of Richmond, has written about her innovative course called “Writing from the Body.” As signaled by the title, the course involves reflecting on the state of one’s own body, then putting those reflections into words, and in the process gaining a better understanding of one’s own current life situation.  

 When one attempts to order or array the several human intelligences in some fashion, linguistic, bodily, and personal intelligences may seem distant from one another. But in the hands of a skillful educator, these intelligences can be joined; and the resulting whole can be very helpful to students who, in many cases, are struggling with the stresses of contemporary life.

Writing from the Body: A blend of intelligences

By Cheryl Pallant

      At the start of the semester, students in my Writing From the Body class hand in a “somatic journey” contract where they state what areas they intend to focus on and why. Though I periodically teach the class as a workshop at art centers across the U.S. and abroad, I regularly teach undergraduates through the Theater and Dance Department at University of Richmond in Virginia. Students who choose this class can receive a General Education, Visual and Performance Art credit. The class combines writing and movement, exercises in one leading to and building upon the other. Exercises are used to express through dancing and writing, to further somatic awareness, to bring what may be unconscious into consciousness, and to investigate how meaning is made. A somatic journey asks them to come to know their subjective experience, to learn their multi-sensory body. Over the years the students have majored in everything from dance and English to psychology, biology, finance, gender studies, leadership, and international policy.

     I’ve been teaching this class for decades. Early on, students attended primarily to increase flexibility, strength, coordination, confidence, and creativity. Those objectives continue but I’ve noticed a significant change. More and more, my students report dealing with high levels of stress, depression, and anxiety to the point of missing class, requiring medication, and dropping out for a semester or two. My speculation as to what’s changed points to fiercer competition to get into grad school and land a decent job. Others have proposed a variety of causes ranging  from less autonomy growing up to the pressures imposed by ubiquitous social media.

     Hal was a biology major on the baseball team who wanted to increase his strength and coordination. A diligent student, he fulfilled every assignment and participated in class discussion. During movement instruction, I continually ask students to observe their breath, because this pivotal autonomic physiological process impacting the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system is often ignored. The quality of our breath is vital for extended physical exertions common to athletes and dancers. It’s also pivotal for feeling ease and can help or hinder concentration and focus. Regularly, I ask students to check the duration of their breath, whether the inhale matches the length of exhale, and if the breaths are smooth or jagged.

     One of Hal’s written assignments revealed the gravity of his newfound breath awareness. As a high school freshman, he developed pectus excavatum, a collapsing of the chest wall. A fellow classmate made fun of him in the locker room and as a result, he vowed to not remove his shirt in front of anyone again. If pectus excavatum is left untreated, the chest wall can squeeze the lungs and heart with fatal consequences. Over the next several years, Hal’s breast bone turned more inward, pressing against his organs, yet he kept his condition a secret from his parents, doctor, and baseball coach. My class got him to recognize the shallowness of his breath and confront his shame. He accepted, too, the potentially fatal repercussions of continuing to ignore his body. He subsequently spoke to his parents and doctors and arranged for surgery; later, he wrote that this class may have saved his life.

Turning his attention to his body didn’t require extraordinary skill. It required that Hal attune somatically to the specific conditions of his body and acknowledge its truths. It required that he be present to the sensations, actions, and emotions of his body, to notice and face his shame, and use that information to determine a course of action, in this case to get medical help.

Maggie was a 4.0 double major in finance and accounting who wanted to explore her creative side. She reported difficulty with stress, anxiety, and panic attacks which led to missing classes the previous semester. She was puzzled though welcoming of her unfamiliar calm at the end of each class session. She danced with great enthusiasm while her writing depicted her struggle to assign words to movements for which there was no readily available language, a process that helped her hone her senses. The exercises led her to identify her stress and anxiety triggers and to modify her behavior. By the semester’s end, she wrote that the somatic lessons saved her college career.

     Maggie’s initial lack of understanding is commonplace in that many of us haven’t been trained to read the body’s numerous signals, let alone find the words to describe what is taking place. Somatic literacy increases by turning attention to the overt and subtle phenomenon of the body and using language metaphorically and literally. Articulation through writing increases awareness of the body; similarly articulation through movement helps us loosen the muscles of expression and embody our chosen words. The strength and ability of one discipline creates inroads to the understanding of the other. Essentially, language, bodily, and intrapersonal intelligences interact and increase. The increases enable active engagement with the circumstances of life with greater awareness of causes, results, and choice.

     Whereas much of education focuses on objective knowing—memorizing facts and processes through the sciences for instance—a class such as this, teaches subjective knowing and embodiment. It familiarizes us with our individual inner world and how it connects with the outer world. The byproducts are many, among them showing our actions as part of a larger system; revealing the value of honesty—in that harbored lies harm ourselves; demonstrating how physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual awareness work together; and catalyzing that opening to the flow of creativity applicable to many disciplines, especially potent for writer’s block.

     A recent report from the Anxiety and Depression Association of America states that as many as 40 million adults suffer from anxiety disorders—women are twice as likely to suffer as men, numbers are thought only to be going up. To improve health and well-being and before resorting to medication, I would first prescribe several doses of dancing and journaling. Other than an occasional sore muscle, the only other side effects I’ve witnessed are a more positive outlook and an enhanced ability to foster connections.

Cheryl Pallant is a poet, dancer, professor at the University of Richmond in Virginia, and author of Writing and the Body in Motion.

A Misunderstanding of MI Theory

The below recently appeared in The Washington Post Answer Sheet section by Valerie Strauss (click here for link).

It’s good to expose myths about neuroscience — but the debunking is getting out of hand, a world-famous psychologist says

If you believe that students have different “learning styles” — which many people do — you have succumbed to a “neuromyth,” which is a commonly held view about the results of brain research that isn’t actually true.

It’s one of many popular neuromyths that have been debunked in recent years, but it turns out, there’s also a problem with some of that debunking. In some cases, debunkers are wrong in their analysis or misunderstand the thing they are debunking. That’s the topic of this post, written by Howard Gardner, the world-renowned psychologist whose work has revolutionized the fields of education and psychology.

One of the most misunderstood brain theories over the past several decades is Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, which was advanced more than 35 years ago. The theory — explained in Gardner’s 1983 book “Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences” — said human beings had more than a single kind of intelligence and listed seven that work together: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal and intrapersonal. He later added an eighth, naturalist intelligence, and says there may be a few more.

The theory became highly popular with K-12 educators, many of whom thought “multiple intelligences” were synonymous with the concept of “learning styles.” Gardner never said that, though debunkers of his theory have claimed he did.

Gardner is now a professor of cognition and education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education and is an adjunct professor of psychology at Harvard University. He is the senior director of Harvard’s Project Zero, a research center that explores topics in education such as intelligence, creativity and ethics, and he directs the Good Project, initiatives that seek to prepare students to become good citizens and workers in society through education. The author of more than 30 books, he has been working on a large-scale national study about how different groups think about the goals of college and the value of studying liberal arts and sciences.

Most teachers believe that kids have different ‘learning styles.’ Here’s why they are wrong.

By Howard Gardner

We live in an age of debunking. It’s energizing to shoot down someone or something, and sometimes, that’s a good thing.

But when “debunking” gets out of hand, it needs to be called to account. And when you yourself are the target of a debunking, not surprisingly, you feel called upon to become the sheriff — the debunker of the debunkers, so to speak.

You may have heard the word “neuromyth” or the phrase “neural myth.” It’s used by researchers and, less frequently, by laypersons to describe a widely held belief that is not true. And indeed, there clearly are statements about the nervous system that deserve to be debunked.

Two examples:

• The brain has two hemispheres — left and right — and some people are left-brained, while others are right-brained.

• We only use 10 percent of our brain.

Each of these examples starts from a fact — we do have two cerebral hemispheres and they are not identical. But even as a metaphor, the leap to two kinds of persons is not warranted.

No doubt most of us could make better use of the brain. But how to determine what percentage is used, how to account for awake, sleep, dreaming and day dreaming is left completely unsolved — perhaps not even considered.

But a whole industry has grown in which various myths are delineated, exposed and presumably laid to rest. Yet, when one looks carefully at the assertions about the myths, many of the statements that are supposedly debunking something do not themselves withstand scrutiny.

Enter my own work. More than 35 years ago, I introduced the theory of multiple intelligences, a critique of the notion of a single intelligence adequately probed by a single short answer test. In its place, I proposed that human beings have a number of relatively independent intellectual capacities. And in supporting this assertion, I drew on evidence from several scholarly disciplines, including the brain science of the day.

Never did I come close to asserting that these intelligences are inborn or genetic, or that they are completely independent of one another, or that people can be described as having one intelligence or another to the exclusion of the remaining ones. Nor did I make specific suggestions about education. I simply stated that individuals have different profiles of intelligences and that this claim should be taken into account when one is teaching, studying, assessing.

Yet, in an article published in 2019 in a well-regarded journal, I found multiple intelligences (MI) theory classified as a neural myth. And this article spurred me to look more carefully at how such myths are identified and dissected.

What I found was disturbing. The article distinguished between five statements that are presumably true, and five that are asserted to be neuromyths.

First of all, of the 10 statements, only six of them even mentioned the brain or the nervous system. And so 40 percent of them are not neural at all!

Second, those that were considered myths were expressed in hyperbolic form. “All,” “none” and “predominant”: Anyone with experience in taking (or making) tests would know that these statements are likely to be false.

Third, and in contrast to the previous point, those that were considered true were expressed in much less totalistic form — using hedges such as “likely” and “may.”

Fourth, and most telling, none of the statements actually requires mention of the brain. They are statements about learning, studying, remembering, each of which could have been — and perhaps was! — stated 100 or 1,000 years ago. The descriptor “neuro” is gratuitous.

My conclusion: The mission of neuromythology has gone too far. Obviously, all of us — researchers, teachers or members of the general public — should scrutinize statements carefully.

A few lessons:

• We should be wary of absolutist statements.

• Just as it is useful for educators to learn about psychology and sociology, we should attempt to learn what has been established about the brain and the nervous system. But we should never change our behaviors or teachings just because of new assertions about the brain. All education is concerned with values — and so we should always ask whether a recommended tactic is consistent with what we believe should be taught and learned and why we think so.

• Finally, perhaps it’s time to bracket the debunking phrase “neuromyths.” Instead, when we encounter an assertion — be it based on psychology, pedagogy or neuroscience — we should attempt to find out in what ways it is meritorious, or suspect, or not worth taking seriously. And if the latter, we should attempt to discover better ways to achieve the educational goals that we cherish.

The Power of an Open Mind

Howard Gardner was recently interviewed about MI theory in today’s world – one in which many of the old structures of work and education are breaking down. The following article by Annette MacKenzie appeared in World Magazine.

Harvard professor Howard Gardner has spent a lifetime understanding the way we learn and think – but one of his most important lessons is about the importance of keeping an open mind.

The list of academic awards on developmental psychologist Professor Howard Gardner’s CV is long, very long. From the MacArthur “Genius” Fellowship in 1981, through 31 honorary degrees to more recent awards highlighting his role as an influential thinker in a number of fields, including business and ethics.

The John H. and Elisabeth A. Hobbs Research Professor of Cognition and Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, he has written 30 books and several hundred articles and is best known for his theory of multiple intelligences (MI). After spending time working with both brain-damaged adults and gifted children in the late 1970s/early 1980s, he challenged the notion that there is a single human intelligence that can be measured by a standard IQ test. Instead he proposed that we all have a number of intelligences and we can be strong in some and weaker in others. These intelligences include linguistic, visual, musical, interpersonal and intrapersonal – the ability to know yourself.

The multiple intelligences theory transformed the fields of psychology and education and has gone on to be applied in many countries and in many different ways – some right and some wrong, according to Gardner, 76, who recently set up the Multiple Intelligences Oasis website to provide clarity on the theory. Meanwhile he has branched out in other directions and since the mid-1990s been director of The Good Project, which prepares students to become good workers and citizens, contributing to the overall wellbeing of society.

Here he shares his wisdom on how to survive – and thrive – in the 21st century:

In a recent Harvard Gazette interview you say: “The greatest gift you can have is an education, one that isn’t strictly professional.” Could you explain?

I have at least three reasons for this:

l. The job landscape is changing rapidly and preparation for any specific job may turn out to be out of touch with reality a few years from now.

2. Skills of writing, thinking, critiquing, synthesizing, communicating, collaborating are going to be important for the foreseeable future and these are best acquired via a wide-ranging education across topics and disciplines. That’s why people around the world want their children to go to Princeton or Amherst or Pomona or Dartmouth, rather than to engineering school or journalism school or veterinary school as undergraduates.

3. As an old person, I can say that a broad higher education is the greatest gift that you can give yourselves for the rest of your life. Because even after you can no longer run a mile or get on airplanes, you can still enjoy music, art, theater and especially fiction and non-fiction reading and discussion groups. And if you had a narrow education, that’s difficult to do. If you have a broad education, you are accumulating intellectual and cultural capital on which you can draw for the rest of your life.

When you think of work in the future, how do you see students being best prepared? Can we educate for a world that has not yet emerged?

I suppose that this statement was more true historically than most of us would realize. I knew my parents (born around 1910) and my grandparents (born about 1880) well enough to know that they could never have anticipated the events of the past 140 years.

So, yes, we can’t anticipate particular jobs and particular expertises that my grandchildren, born in this century, will need. But there are certain ‘basics’ or ‘constants’ or ‘essentials’. Among them are a sense of morality, integrity, ethics – that my colleagues and I focus on in thegoodproject.org – what it means to be a good worker and a good citizen.

Also, while it is certainly advantageous to know about computing, data analysis, and STEM topics and skills, I still believe that a broad multi-disciplinary education is essential for any age. And so I certainly want my own offspring to have an education that includes history, philosophy and the arts.

How do we – and should we – keep “building bridges rather than walls” across countries, societies, in universities and workplaces?

Of course we should build bridges rather than walls – even the most extreme left-winger or right-winger cannot provide a rational justification for wall-building rather than bridge-building.

But we have learnt that in the second decade of the 21st century, that has become increasingly difficult – and a surprising proportion of the US population seems to think that problems will be solved, rather than exacerbated, by building physical or psychological walls. And, alas, that’s not just true of the US, as I hardly need to remind those who live in Britain, Hungary, Turkey, Brazil, Venezuela or China.

There are no shortcuts. My own ‘formula’ is the development early in life of ‘neighbourly morality’ – roughly, the stances captured in the Golden Rule [the principle of treating others as you would wish them to treat you] and the Ten Commandments.

As one grows up in a complex interconnected world, one needs to add ‘the ethics of roles’ – what it means to be a good worker and a good citizen. Good workers and good citizens are informed; they do not assume that they have all the answers; they listen carefully to other points of view; and they are prepared to change their minds. Formulaically, it’s the Five D’s: they recognize Dilemmas and are prepared to Discuss, Debate, Decide and then Debrief, and reflect on what they ultimately decided and how they might do better next time.

This may not ensure bridges, but it certainly guards against defending walls at all costs. You avoid becoming a fundamentalist – a person with a commitment not to change his or her mind.

Are there circumstances when boundaries are important for discipline and achievement or is it better to keep ‘no limits’ as a mantra?

Life is short and there is no point in pretending that one can know everything or master everything. So even if one pursues ‘no limits’, one will not succeed. Still it’s good not to set up firm boundaries, because you risk closing your mind to something important. I am a fundamentalist on a few things – the importance of pursuing truth, use of the scientific method where appropriate, the centrality in life of artistic experiences – but otherwise, I try to keep my mind open and hope that those with whom I associate will do the same.

Will the ability to collaborate be increasingly important for the future? 

The ability to collaborate has always been important and there’s no reason to think that will change. However, in the future, we will need to collaborate with machines, robots, AI programs, and that’s a new challenge – for future generations!

Do you feel that enough attention has been paid to your idea of multiple intelligences? Or do schools and colleges use the idea only when there is a perceived problem – in the case of illness, such as brain damage, say, or a developmental disorder, such as dyslexia?

When I first wrote about multiple intelligences 40 years ago, I could never have anticipated in my wildest dreams that it would still dominate my mail and my invitations.

That said, like many other writers and theorists, I’m more likely to notice misuses or inadequate understandings than appropriate uses and interpretations.

The best source for ‘good uses’ is the 2009 book Multiple Intelligences Around the World in which 42 authors from 15 countries on five continents indicate prudent and imaginative educational programs based on MI theory. I also host a website – multipleintelligencesoasis.org  – where I regularly post ideas, blogs and practices that I like, as well as those about which I’m dubious.

Do you think that the average child is still judged on very narrow parameters?

Probably true. But, along with [psychologist and writer] Daniel Goleman and a few others, I think I have broadened and tempered the discussion all around the world – even for people and institutions who have never heard of me or of MI theory.

What is your best life lesson?

‘Choose your parents well.’ Of course, that’s a quip. But I do think that parents are the biggest influence on the ethical character of their children. I am lucky that my parents both had a strong moral compass, and I have tried to have a moral compass myself and to share it with my children, colleagues and students over the years.

Do you think morality matters more than success?

For me that’s an easy one. But one of the tragedies of our age – and probably of other eras as well – is that so many people see success – which is often viewed as fame and fortune – as more important than doing the right thing. I wish I lived at a time, and in a country, where people were judged not by the amount of money, possessions and headlines they have garnered before they are buried, but rather by the evidence that, when difficult issues arose, they tried to do the right thing.

What are the multiple intelligences?

While IQ tests assess linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence, and sometimes spatial intelligence, Professor Gardner states that humans have several other significant intellectual capacities or ‘intelligences’: musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal (social), intrapersonal (understanding of self), and naturalistic (the capacity to make consequential distinctions in the world of nature).

He has also speculated about two other possible intelligences: existential (the capacity to ponder questions about big issues, such as life, death, fairness and justice), and pedagogical (the intelligence that enables people to convey knowledge or skills to others).